With the surrender of CSA Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia to US Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant, at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865, the only remaining hostilities in the Eastern Theater were in North Carolina. While Grant was battling Lee at Petersburg, Johnston’s Army of Tennessee was desperately trying to hold Sherman’s armies at bay in North Carolina. Much was at stake as Johnston wanted to contain the Federal armies and keep them from uniting with Grant in Virginia. Sherman’s pursuit of Johnston was essentially a two front affair and resulted in the battles of Averasborough (March 16) and Bentonville (March 19-21). After these battles, Johnston’s headquarters was near Greensboro and Sherman’s was near Raleigh. After Lee’s surrender on April 9, Johnston knew the end was drawing near. Sending a courier to Federal troops at Morrisville, Johnston requested a meeting with Sherman, between the enemy lines, to discuss a truce. They would converge on the Hillsborough Road at the Bennett farm on April 17. Much of their first day’s conference was colored by Sherman’s disclosure that President Abraham Lincoln had been assassinated two days before. Sherman was prepared to offer similar terms to what Grant provided Lee little more than a week earlier. However, Johnston was insistent “to arrange the terms of a permanent peace.”(i) These terms included items which were considered “political” in nature. Ultimately wanting peace, Sherman would agree to much of what Johnston proposed the next day. The two generals signed the memorandum and sent it to their governments.

When President Andrew Johnson and the U.S. government received the surrender terms cheer in the surrender turned to outrage. There were cries through Washington City, and the North, that Sherman was a traitor for negotiating such liberal terms with Johnston. Several items were at the center of the firestorm: 1) Arms and ammunition were to be returned to the southern states after being reported to the Chief of Ordnance at Washington City; 2) The states and their officers were to be recognized by the Federal government; 3) The reestablishment of all Federal courts in the southern states; 4) The southern peoples rights to property as defined the the U.S. Constitution; and 5) General amnesty for southern soldiers and officers.

These items, rightfully so, were viewed by the U.S. Government as political items to be determined by the legislature and approved by the president. Simply put, Sherman overstepped his authority as a military officer to negotiate anything beyond the surrender of Johnston’s army.

Ulysses Grant was quickly dispatched to North Carolina where he met with Sherman. He explained to Sherman that he was only to negotiate the surrender of the Confederate army on terms mirroring the surrender he had negotiated with Robert E. Lee at Appomattox. If Johnston would not agree to such terms, Sherman was to attack Johnston immediately. On April 26 Sherman met again with Johnston at the Bennett Place. Johnston, being instructed by president Jefferson F. Davis, was to accept no such surrender. Wanting to end the war, Johnston went against his instructions and accepted the agreement. The surrender was signed the same day. With the surrender of the Army of Tennessee, all hostilities ceased in the Eastern Theater. While there were still pockets of Confederate forces, the Civil War was essentially over.

The Bennett Place is a wonderful historic monument. North Carolina has done a terrific job restoring the site. It is a national treasure. When you find yourself in the area of Raleigh-Durham, make sure to plan a trip to the Bennett Place. Site manager, John W. Guss, and his staff, are friendly and will make your visit a memorable one.

(i) See the Bennett Place website for more information.

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As McDowell marched his army of nearly 35,000 men from Washington City on July 16, 1861, CSA Brigadier General Pierre Gustave Toutant (P.G.T.) Beauregard was aware of the tenuous situation facing his Army of the Potomac. With roughly 22,000 troops, Beauregard was concerned that he would be overrun by the larger Federal army before reinforcements could arrive from the Shenandoah Valley. McDowell’s tactical plan was to march his army in three columns towards Bull Run Creek and place the largest portion south of the Confederate right flank – effectively severing the Confederate supply line with Richmond and forcing the Confederate general to move his army south of the Rappahannock River – the next defensible line available to him. This would serve to provide some relief for the beleaguered national capital and demonstrate the power of the Federal forces Lincoln had assembled to “save the Union.”

On July 18, in an effort to put his plan in motion, McDowell ordered Brigadier Daniel Tyler to initiate a flanking movement against the southern flank of Beauregard’s forces. This would result in what would best be described as a skirmish at Blackburn’s Ford. Tyler would retreat after his division was beaten back by Confederate forces under the command of CSA Brigadier General James Longstreet. While total losses would be less than 200, McDowell was forced to change his battle plan.

On July 21, McDowell put his new plans in motion. Orders were drafted for Tyler’s Division to make a demonstration at the Stone Bridge, along the Warrenton Turnpike, while two other divisions, commanded by brigadier generals David Hunter and Samuel Heintzelman, would utilize Sudley Springs Ford to turn the left flank of the Confederate line. The battle would begin at approximately 5:15 a.m. with artillery rounds being fired from Tyler’s Division into the Confederate forces guarding the Stone Bridge. The Rebel field commander, Colonel Nathan “Shanks” Evans, quickly realized the bombardment was a feint and sent the majority of his command west to protect against a movement from the north. By 11:30 a.m., Evans new position, near Matthews Hill, was hard pressed by Federal forces. Pulling back from the Warrenton Turnpike, he would return to the main Confederate line near the Henry House. McDowell believed victory was within his grasp with his forces closing in around the small hill dominated by the Henry residence. Unfortunately, the momentum of the battle changed drastically with the arrival of CSA Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston’s Army of the Shenandoah.

Johnston had been tasked with preventing a large scale incursion of the Shenandoah Valley by forces under the command of US Major General Robert Patterson. Patterson had received a similar directive in anticipation of McDowell’s advance on Manassas Junction: keep Johnston’s forces engaged in the Shenandoah Valley to prevent a move to reinforce Beauregard. In this Patterson failed miserably. Johnston was able to quickly mobilize his army and arrived at Manassas Junction late on the morning of July 21. This quick deployment was made possible by the first successful military use of a railroad. Thus, when Confederate fortunes appeared bleak near Henry House Hill, the tide turned.

Recently promoted and little known Brigadier General Thomas J. Jackson would arrive at Henry House Hill around noon. With the vastly overwhelmed Confederate line now disintegrating, the timing could not have been better. Jackson quickly conferred with Brigadier General Barnard Bee, who would soon be killed in action, and was advised, “The enemy are driving us.” To this Jackson responded, “Then, Sir, we will give them the bayonet.”(iii) Jackson’s brigade quickly entered the confused fray, surprising the Federal forces and quickly changing the complexion of the battle. By 4:00 p.m., repeated Confederate assaults along the Henry House Hill line would force the retreat of the Union line. Realizing the fight had turned against him, and unable to organize his fear stricken army, McDowell ordered a general retreat across Bull Run Creek. Thus ended the First Battle of Bull Run which would repeat itself fourteen months later when another Federal force, the Army of Virginia, would retreat pellmell all the way back to the defenses of Washington City.

With news of the battle reaching the general population, moods changed. The combined losses at Manassas were staggering: nearly 5,000 killed, wounded, missing and captured. No longer was it believed that the war would be over quickly. Patriotic fervor would quickly swell the ranks of armies north and south, east and west. Across the south people rejoiced in the streets while its commanders, Beauregard, Johnston and Jackson were extolled as heroes. And while the Confederate victory was not solely the result of the actions of Thomas Jackson, he would earn the sobriquet, Stonewall – a moniker that would become synonymous with him – even today. Meanwhile in the north a quiet determination took hold. Quickly, a new army leader would emerge: Major General George B. McClellan. While he brought order to the somber, defeated ranks a new mantra would appear in the press and be voiced by northerners, “On to Richmond.” Little did the populace know, nor could they in their worst dreams imagine, the toll the war would take over the coming three years: 620,000 dead Americans and many more disfigured and forever scarred. July 1861 would forever herald the start of a new phase in the story of America – a story that still defines us today – a story of death, anguish and brothers fighting brothers – but most importantly a new birth of freedom.

While I could not attend today’s sesquicentennial activities at Manassas National Battlefield Park, my heart will never forget the last and final sacrifice which our patriots made on the bloody fields near Henry House Hill.

For a more in depth narrative of the First Battle of Bull Run click HERE.

To view my collection of photos of Manassas National Battlefield click HERE.

(i) Gipson, Lawrence H., Third Millennium Library paper, “The Collapse of the Confederacy.” To read this paper, click HERE.
(ii) McPherson, James M., Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era, published by Oxford University Press on November 6, 2003, Pg. 336.
(iii) Robertson, James I, Jr., Stonewall Jackson: The Man, The Soldier, The Legend, published by MacMillan Publishing in 1997, Pg. 264.

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The 2d Iowa Infantry was recruited largely from the area of Keokuk, Iowa.  Its ranks included farmers, laborers, clerks and business men.  Mustered into Federal service on May 27, 1861, its commanding officer was Colonel Samuel R. Curtis.  Curtis would eventually reach the rank of major general and would command the Army of the Southwest, the District of Missouri and later the Department of Kansas and the Indian Territory (Oklahoma).  Other officers from the 2d Iowa would become general officers including James M. Tuttle and Marcellus Crocker.

Its earliest service would be at St. Joseph, Missouri where it was assigned to guard the railroads until July 1861.  It would witness its first major engagement at the Battle of Fort Donelson, on February 15, 1861, where it would be the first regiment to place its flag on the enemy parapets.  The following quote, from Woodworth’s excellent book, prompted my desire to write this article.  It paints a vivid picture of the courage of soldiers attacking a prepared position.

“‘Come on, you volunteers, come on,’ roared [Brigadier General Charles F.] Smith.  ‘This is your chance.  You volunteered to be killed for love of country and now you can be.’  …..[original color bearer Harry Doolittle took four bullets and the colors were quickly picked up by  Scehencius "Solomon" G. Page who would be killed] Page was dead by this time, and Cpl. James Churcher carried the colors of the 2nd Iowa.  The regiment broke free of the abatis at last and plunged forward to cover the last few yards to the breastworks.  A bullet broke Churcher’s arm, and the colors fell for a third time in the charge.  Cpl. Voltaire P. Twombley, last man in the color guard, snatched them up.  Almost at once a spent bullet slammed into him, knocking him to the ground.  [General Charles F.] Smith was already leaping his horse over the Rebel breastworks.  Twombley scrambled to his feet, climbed the breastworks, and planted the colors atop the Rebel parapet.  The 2nd Iowa surged by all around him.  Most of the Rebels fled, and the attackers bayoneted those who stayed to fight.  Then as the defenders tried to form up for resistance a hundred yards or so in the rear of the breastworks, the Iowans quickly capped their rifles and poured a devastating fire into them [Smith had ordered them to charge with their muskets loaded but not capped so they would not stop to fire, slowing them down].”(i)

All told, during their assault, the 2d Iowa would lose three color bearers, with the fourth, Twombley, wounded.  They would remain close to the enemy’s lines, through the bitterly cold night of February 16, until CSA Brigadier General Simon B. Buckner surrendered the fort later in the day.

The regiment would remain at Fort Donelson until March 5 when they were sent to Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee.  They were part of Colonel James Tuttle’s First Brigade of Brigadier General W.H.L. Wallace’s Second Division.  They would bivouac at Pittsburg Landing for several weeks while they prepared to attack CSA General Albert Sidney Johnston’s Army of Mississippi at Corinth, Mississippi.  On April 6, Johnston would attack first, in a battle named for a small church near their camp – Shiloh.  The initial assault was against US Brigadier General William T. Sherman’s Fifth Division.  Sherman’s forces, and those of Major General John A. McClernand’s First Division, would be surprised by the assault and would be pushed back several hundred yards.  The 2d Iowa Infantry, commanded at this time by Lieutenant Colonel James Baker, would quickly be sent forward to reinforce the rapidly crumbling Federal position.  They would take position along an old sunken farm road with a small open field separating them from their adversary.  The Iowans would endure repeated attacks.  Known as the Hornet’s Nest, it would witness some of the most brutal fighting of the Civil War.  Eventually, facing a numerically superior force with significant artillery support, they would fall back towards their camps near Pittsburg Landing Road.  Wallace would be mortally wounded during the fight and would die a couple days later.  Overnight, with the arrival of US Major General Don Carlos Buell’s Army of the Ohio, Major General Ulysses S. Grant would plan an attack for the next morning – a devastating unsuspected attack that would push the Confederate Army of the Mississippi all the way back to Corinth.

Over the next several months, the 2d Iowa would take part in the fighting to capture Corinth.  They would capture the town in October 1862 and would be garrisoned there through April 1863.  The 2d Iowa Infantry would continue to see action in parts of Tennessee, Mississippi and Alabama through November 1863 when they were sent to Pulaski, Tennessee to guard the Nashville & Decatur Railroad.  They would eventually be sent to Decatur, Alabama where they would continue to guard the road until May 1864.

On May 5, 1864 the 2d Iowa Infantry would be sent to northern Georgia where they would take part in Sherman’s Atlanta Campaign.  They would fight at the battles of Resaca (May 13-15), Dallas, New Hope Church, Allatoona Hills (May 25 – June 5) and the operations around Marietta.  They were assigned to Brigadier General Elliott Rice’s First Brigade, Thomas Sweeny’s First Division of Major General Grenville Dodge’s XVI Corps.  On June 27, they would take part in the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain where they would attack the fortified position the Confederate Army of Tennessee held on the north face of the mountain.  They would suffer significant losses in this largely one sided battle – a battle which Sherman would quickly realize was hopeless.

Sherman would eventually push around the right flank of General Joseph E. Johnston’s army, pushing them all the way into Atlanta.  Johnston would be removed from command and be replaced with hard fighting General John Bell Hood.  With the Federal armies fully encircling the north approaches of Atlanta, Hood would attack Sherman’s left flank on July 22, 1864.  In what would be called the Battle of Atlanta, the 2d Iowa Infantry would be positioned near the far left flank of the Army of the Tennessee.  Hood’s Confederates nearly rolled up the entire flank before being repulsed.  Once again, the 2d Iowa would take significant casualties but would retain their position at the end of the battle.  Sherman, settled in for a siege that would last for several weeks before he was able to push Hood from Atlanta.

The 2d Iowa Infantry would stay with Sherman’s army and would participate in the March to the Sea and the Carolinas Campaign.  They were with the army when General Joseph Johnston, once again commanding the Army of Tennessee, surrendered to Sherman in April 1865.  They would participate in the Grand Review of the armies, in Washington City, on May 24, mustering out of Federal service on July 12.  They would return to Davenport, Iowa on July 20 having suffered 283 casualties.  The men of the 2d Iowa Infantry could be proud of their service.  They were the first regiment to hoist their colors on the Confederate parapet at Fort Donelson and would witness the surrender of two Confederate armies.(ii)

(i) Woodworth, Steven E., Nothing But Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861-1865, published by Vintage Civil War Library in October 2006, Pgs. 109-110.
(ii) The Civil War Soldiers and Sailors System was used to research this article.

In what would be one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War, US Major General William S. Rosecrans, commanding the Army of the Cumberland, would push into northern Georgia, after a near bloodless battle to capture Chattanooga, and have his four infantry corps and single cavalry corps spread over a large area.  Believing Confederate Army of Tennessee commander, Braxton Bragg, was retreating towards Dalton, and further points south, he became lax in reuniting his command near the Chickamauga.  Instead of retreating, Bragg had an offensive move planned to attack Rosecrans and beat his army piecemeal before they could reunite.  Fortunately for Rosecrans, Bragg was slow in attacking, and he was able to bring together most all of his army to counter any thrust by the Confederates.  Very heavy skirmishing would occur between the Confederate and Federal cavalry, and some infantry, during the day on September 18.  This allowed Rosecrans to bring his infantry closer together.  Heavy fighting would occur through the day on September 19 and the Confederate position would be strengthened by the arrival of CSA Lieutenant General James Longstreet’s corps which was sent west by General Robert E. Lee.  This corps, led by the ever aggressive division commander, Major General John Bell Hood, would exploit an opening created by confusion on Rosecrans’ part on September 20.  Punching through the opening, Longstreet’s soldiers would roll the two wings of the Federal army apart causing a pellmell retreat towards Chattanooga.  The only thing that prevented complete destruction of the fleeing Federal troops was a courageous stand made by US Major General George H. Thomas at Snodgrass Hill.  Thomas would earn the moniker, “Rock of Chickamauga,” for the desperate defensive fight his troops endured while battling a large portion of Bragg’s Army of Tennessee.  This would be Bragg’s singular victory as commander the army and after a defeat, by US Major General Ulysses S. Grant, at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, Bragg would end up being sent east as military advisor to the Jefferson Davis administration.  After being “boxed up” in Chattanooga, with his Army of the Cumberland nearly starving, Grant would relieve Rosecrans of command and would promote Thomas to command of the army – a command he had earned through hard fighting, exceptional administrative skills and strong leadership.

I had planned on writing an in-depth essay on the Battle of Chickamauga, for the 147th anniversary, but a heavy workload at my real job prevented me from doing so.  This will have to wait until next year.  In the meantime, I provide a short narrative I wrote on the battle, several years back, for my other website, BattlefieldPortraits.com.  The complete text of that article is provided below.  Additionally, I have a collection of photos, from trips I have made to the Chickamauga National Military Park, on my Flickr site which I have arranged into a photo essay.  You can view these photos by clicking on the following link.

Michael’s Photo Essay on the Battle of Chickamauga

If you are interested in learning more about the Battle of Chickamauga, one of the most interesting battles in the Western Theater, in my humble opinion, I would recommend the following three books.

This Terrible Sound: The Battle of Chickamauga, by: Peter Cozzens (this is the best, of three very good books in his trilogy the other being on the battles of Stones River and Chattanooga)

The Chickamauga Campaign, edited by Steven E. Woodworth featured essays by: John R. Lundberg, Alexander Mendoza, David Powell, Ethan S. Rafuse, William G. Robertson, Timothy B. Smith, Lee White and Steven Woodworth.

The Maps of Chickamauga: An Atlas of the Chickamauga Campaign, August 29 – September 23, 1863, by David Powell with cartography by David Friedrichs (this is an excellent book in Savas Beatie, LLC’s maps series)

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Battle of Chickamauga

Location: Catoosa & Walker counties near Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia

Dates: September 18-20, 1863

Union Commander: William S. Rosecrans, Major General
Confederate Commander: Braxton Bragg, General

Battle Summary:

William S. Rosecrans was not known for his alacrity.  After a decisive victory, over several days in late 1862 and early 1863, at Stone’s River, Rosecrans went into winter bivouac.  Even after the urgings of President Lincoln, in the spring of 1863, Rosecrans would not move his Army of the Cumberland.

Finally, in late June, the gargantuan Army of the Cumberland started moving slowly to dislodge Bragg’s Army of the Tennessee, at Tullahoma, Tennessee.  This movement was quickly reported to Bragg who decided to relocate his army to northern Georgia – possibly as far as Dalton – since this would provide a better field of battle.

Rosecrans now moved more quickly to cut off Bragg’s army.  This was described by soldiers, in the Army of the Cumberland, as one of the hardest marches, over the most difficult terrain, encountered thus far.

After splitting his Army of the Cumberland into three assaulting forces, Rosecrans decided to assault (from the north, Major General Thomas L. Crittenden’s XXI Corps, the west, Major General George H. Thomas’ XIV Corps and the southwest, Major General Alexander McD. McCook’s XX Corps) the Army of Tennessee near a sleepy creek, called Chickamauga (appropriately meaning in the local Indian dialect: “River of Blood”).

As the Union forces under Thomas approached the Chickamauga, on September 18, thinking Bragg’s forces were on the other side, they were caught in a surprise attack.  The Union forces pulled back to the Lafayette Road and were determined to hold this north/south line.

During second day’s battle, James Longstreet’s Corps arrived in time to join the battle.  This brought the armies close to par and allowed Bragg a little breathing room.  The battle continued to sway back-and-forth along a 2 1/2 mile with the Lafayette Road being the approximate dividing line.

On the third day, through a grievous error on Rosecrans’ part, Longstreet was able to break through a hole near the center of the Union line.  Longstreet’s Corps, including John Bell Hood’s Texans, quickly rolled McCook’s line to the north and attacked Thomas’s corps to the north.  With Rosecrans leading the way, McCook’s and Crittenden’s corps started a piecemeal retreat towards Chattanooga.  Charles Dana, a war department informer, said he knew there were serious problems when he viewed Rosecrans, a devout Catholic, “cross himself.”

Left on the field, along the Snodgrass Hill spur, George Thomas’ XIV Corps was in a strong enough defensive position to hold Longstreets’s Corps at bay while the Army of the Cumberland retreated.  US Major General Gordon Granger’sReserve Corps also played a part in holding the Army of Tennessee in place.

Through his cool actions at Chickamauga, George Thomas earned the nickname, “Rock of Chickamauga.”

Campaign: Chickamauga

Outcome: Confederate Victory

Troop Strengths:
Federal: 62,000
Confederate: 65,000

Casualties (34,600 approximate of all types):
Federal: 16,170 (killed, wounded or missing/captured)
Confederate: 18,454 (killed, wounded or missing/captured)

Battle Aftermath:

After their retreat into Chattanooga, the Army of the Cumberland was “boxed in” between the Tennessee River, Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain.  The Army of Tennessee, for all practical purposes, had Rosecrans’ army in a “strangle hold.”  Food and supplies dropped until US Major General Ulysses S. Grant, fresh from victory at Vicksburg, arrived with reinforcements - specifically William T. Sherman’s Army of the Tennessee.  Upon arrival in Chattanooga, Grant relieved Rosecrans and put Thomas in his place.  Within several days food was once again flowing into Chattanooga, along Grant’s “Cracker Line.”  Grant would go on to defeat Bragg’s Army of Tennessee, at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, pushing them into northern Georgia.  Chickamauga, was a huge Confederate victory, but it was the “high water” mark for the Army of Tennessee.  Bragg would win no more victories and would be relieved by CSA General Joseph E. Johnston in the coming months.

To read my narrative of the First Battle of Bull Run, which I wrote for last year’s anniversary, click HERE.

I also have a collection of pictures, from the Manassas National Battlefield Park, which can be viewed by clicking HERE.

Mike’s Photo Essay on Kennesaw National Battlefield Park

If you are interested in visiting Atlanta area battlefields, I also recommend visiting the Pickett’s Mill Battlefield State Historic Site.  It is also north of Atlanta and is one of the better state park battlefields I’ve visited.  I also have a photo essay on this battlefield that can be accessed by clicking in the following link.

Mike’s Photo Essay on Pickett’s Mill Battlefield State Park

The following short narrative on the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain appears on my other website, BattlefieldPortraits.com.

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Battle of Kennesaw Mountain

Location: Kennesaw, Georgia
Dates: June 27, 1864
Union Commander:  William T. Sherman, Major General
Confederate Commander:  Joseph E. Johnston, General

Battle Summary:

For over six weeks Major General William “Tecumseh” Sherman has been maneuvering his army, attempting to outflank Joseph Johnston’s Army of Tennessee.  His goal being Atlanta – the jewel of the south.  He has maintained his proximity to the railroads in an effort to provision his massive army, but had pulled south of the railroad to fight at Dallas, Georgia and at New Hope Church.  Now, in late June, he finds his army hungry - and very near Atlanta.  He has one problem: an entrenched rebel Army of Tennessee at Kennesaw Mountain, near Marietta, Georgia.

Sherman, known for his aggressiveness, decided to send a portion of his army to the right to attack Johnston’s left flank and another portion to the east to hit his right flank.  Meanwhile, the rest of his army would be ready to attack the center when appropriate.  Major General John Schofield would be command the right flank and would lead the charge against Major General John Bell Hood’s Rebels.  Major General James B. McPherson would feint toward the rebel right, held by generals William Loring and Joe Wheeler.  Lastly, Major General George Thomas would command the center, attacking Confederates under generals Patrick Cleburne and Frank Cheatham.

At 8:00 a.m. on the morning of June 27, after an opening cannonade from 200 Federal guns, McPherson’s troops, under the command of generals Francis P. Blair, Grenville Dodge and John Logan moved towards Pigeon Hill and Kennesaw Mountain.  They ran into well entrenched rebel troops and suffered direct and enfilade fire.  Further south, Thomas’ Corps, under divisional command by generals John Newton, Charles Harker, Daniel McCook and Jefferson C.Davis , crossed a creek to the approach of what is now called Cheatham Hill.  There they ran squarely into a blistering fire of musketry from troops under Cleburne and Cheatham.  Running a full hour late, Schofield’s divisions, commanded by Joseph Hooker, Alpheus Williams and Milo Hascall, assaulted troops under the command of John Bell Hood near Kolb’s Farm.

With the exception of Cheatham Hill, the Federal forces were unable to hold any of the ground they fought so desperately to obtain.  The attack ended by 10:45 AM with the Federals retiring to their camps.  Federal troops did remain at Cheatham Hill for five days – a place that will forever be known as the “Dead Angle.”  These troops were within 30 yards of the rebel works and even attempted to tunnel under them.  Today, the Illinois Monument commemorates the struggle of her sons at the “Dead Angle.”  The tunnel entrance remains at the famous monument.

Campaign: Atlanta

Outcome: Confederate Victory

Troop Strengths:
Union: 110,000
Confederate: 65,000

Casualties (estimated):
Union: 3,000 (killed, wounded or missing/captured)
Confederate: 1,000 (killed, wounded or missing/captured)

Battle Aftermath:

William T. Sherman learned a hard lesson about attacking an entrenched army on superior ground.  His army could not dislodge Joseph Johnston’s much smaller Army of Tennessee.  While the Battle of Chickamauga is considered the Army of the Tennessee’s “High Water Mark,” Kennesaw Mountain was a glorious victory that was tarnished by Johnston’s continual retreat towards Atlanta.  In the end, the rebels were doomed.  Sherman continued his flanking moves knowing he would eventually uncover Atlanta.  Johnston would be removed from command, with John Bell Hood acceding to overall command of the unlucky Army of Tennessee.  This would be good for the Union cause due to his impetuosity and overly bold moves.  Sherman would take Atlanta in the early part of September and start his “March to the Sea.”  And as he told Grant, “I intend to make Georgia howl” –  and he did just that.

For more information on John Bell Hood’s Atlanta Campaign refer to my essay, “From Atlanta to Spring Hill: John Bell Hood’s 1864 Franklin-Nashville Campaign.”

The surrender of the Army of Tennessee extinguished any hope of Confederate independence.  While additional Confederate armies were still active in the Western Theater, Johnston’s Army of Tennessee was the last large organized fighting force.  This army saw bloody action at some of the most brutal battles in the west: Stones River, Chickamauga, Chattanooga (Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain), the Atlanta Campaign, Franklin, Nashville and the Carolinas Campaign.  It would have several commanders: Braxton Bragg, Joe Johnston and John Bell Hood.  The battles of Franklin and Nashville would decimate the proud army.  While losing more battles than it won, it was not so much due to the fighting elan of the men, but rather poor decisions made by its commanders.  Many of the most celebrated general officers of the Confederacy held important commands in this army including Patrick Cleburne, Nathan Bedford Forrest, James Longstreet, Stephen D. Lee and Alexander P. Stewart.

By early July, both sides were anxious for a battle – a battle they both believed would quickly end the hostilities.  The North believed the South would quickly come back into the union, while the South believed they would quickly be recognized as an independent nation.  Lincoln, having appointed US Brigadier General Irvin McDowell to command the Army of Northeastern Virginia, garrisoned at Washington City, ordered his commander to attack the Confederate forces of CSA Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard, camped near Manassas Junction.  Lincoln, frustrated with the inactivity of his armed forces, offered advice to his commander, “You are green, it is true, but they are green also.  You are green alike.”(i)  Foreshadowing the tentative nature of future commanders in the eastern theater, McDowell was very concerned about how his soldiers would react in battle.  Pressured by Lincoln, and growing demands from the northern populace, to attack quickly, McDowell left the environs of Washington City and pushed west, on July 16.  His initial plan was to attack the Confederate forces at Bull Run, in a diversionary move, while his primary objective was to move around Beauregard’s right flank, placing a portion of his army between Beauregard and his supply line, to the south.

Typically war planning is done secretly, behind closed doors.  However, in Washington D.C., in July 1861, there were no secrets.  By Friday, July 19, dignitaries, civilians and the Confederate forces knew a battle was brewing.  On Sunday morning, July 21, after changing his tactical plan, McDowell’s five divisions attacked Beauregard’s Confederate forces.  Believing they would witness a grand spectacle, similar to a carnival, many civilians followed the Federal forces in their buggies, many with their picnic baskets packed.  These unfortunate civilians would witness the largest battle, thus far in the United States, and would become part of the first rout of the Civil War.

The following battle narrative is from my other website, BattlefieldPortraits.com.

Battle of First Manassas
(also known as First Bull Run)

Location: Manassas, VA
Dates: July 21, 1861
Union Commander:  Irvin McDowell, Brigadier General
Confederate Commander:  P.G.T. Beauregard, Brig. General
Joseph Johnston, Brig. General

Battle Summary:
After the bombardment of Fort Sumter, the Commonwealth of Virginia promptly pulled out of the Union, bringing the Confederate territory right to the Potomac River – and Washington D.C.  In order to protect the capitol, US General Winfield Scott put Brigadier General Irvin McDowell in charge of the Washington defenses.  While regiments from the northern states arrived in Washington D.C., Irvin McDowell built extensive defensive lines south of the Potomac - on Confederate soil.  Having taken the heights of Arlington and the city of Alexandria, McDowell went to work training his “green” troops.

Further west, at a rail junction near Manassas, Virginia, CSA Brigadier General Pierre G.T. Beauregard, victor of Fort Sumter, started to bring together seven infantry brigades to defend against what was believed to be an inevitable Federal advance on Manassas.  The remaining Confederate defenders were operating in the Shenandoah Valley, under the command of CSA Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston.

Watching over these troops, in the Shenandoah Valley, were troops under US Major General Robert Patterson.  Patterson’s small army was instructed to demonstrate against Joseph Johnston’s army to prevent them from reinforcing Beauregard’s troops at Manassas Junction – an assignment he would ultimately fail.

By early July, pressure began mounting for McDowell to put his gargantuan army (the largest army on U.S. soil up to that time) in motion against the Confederates – winning what was assumed to be one massive battle, before moving “On to Richmond.”  McDowell, like George B. McClellan after him, wanted more time to train and drill his troops, but the astute Lincoln reminded him that his troops were no “greener” than the rebels at Manassas Junction.

By mid-July, McDowell had reorganized his army of sixty regiments and batteries, into brigades. These brigades were organized into five divisions, commanded by: Brigadier Generals Daniel Tyler and Theodore Runyon and Colonels David Hunter, Samuel Heitzelman and Dixon Miles.  All of McDowell’s division commanders were older than him.

On the Confederate side, Beauregard had organized his army into seven infantry brigades with artillery attached to each brigade.  His commanding lieutenants were: Brigadier Generals Richard S. Ewell, James Longstreet, David R. Jones, Milledge Bonham and Colonels Nathan “Shank” Evans, Philip St. George Cooke and Jubal Early.  On the whole, the rebel commanders had significantly more experience than the Union commanders.

Leaving the Washington D.C. defenses on July 16, McDowell moved to Fairfax Court House, arriving on July 17.  Brigadier General Tyler was sent on July 18 to seize Centreville and probe beyond, to determine rebel placements and strength.  Tyler ended up running into James Longstreet’s troops at Blackburn Ford, which proved a very unproductive recognizance.  McDowell, undeterred, moved his army into Centreville, where he devised his plan of attack.  It called for a two pronged advance, with one division feinting attack at the Stone Bridge, on Warrenton Turnpike, while two divisions hit the rebel left flank, after crossing Sudley Ford, from the north.

Having arrived from the Shenandoah Valley, troops under Joseph Johnston began to pour into the Manassas area.  As Johnston was the senior commander, it was agreed that Beauregard would command the field forces, with Johnston in overall command of the theater.  The troops arriving at Manassas, with Johnston, were under the command of a little known brigadier general, Thomas J. Jackson.  These troops joined troops already at Manassas under the command of Beauregard.

Early on the morning of July 21, McDowell put his plan into motion.  Troops under Daniel Tyler demonstrated against the rebel commander at the Stone Bridge, Nathan Evans.  Evans recognized the movement as a feint.  Leaving a small covering force at the Stone Bridge, he relocated his troops south of Matthews Hill where he expected the Union attack to begin.  His troops, roughly 900 strong, were attacked by close to 6,000 troops – two Federal divisions.  Being vastly outnumbered, Evans was quickly pushed back to another rise that would become famous – Henry House Hill.  Here Evans, and other troops under Beauregard, including a brigade under CSA Brigadier General Barnard Bee, were joined with a brigade of Valley men under Thomas Jackson, having recently arrived from the Shenandoah Valley.  These men faced an immediate artillery threat from a battery of Federal artillery placed adjacent to the Henry house.  While shells and musketry shrieked into the Confederate line, Bee noticed Jackson on his horse, calmly directing his brigade.  At this point, to rally his troops, he uttered the words that would immortalize Jackson in the south, “There is Jackson standing like a stone wall.  Let us determine to die here, and we will conquer.  Follow me.”  Ironically enough, Brigadier General Barnard Bee was killed there.  This rallied the demoralized rebels.

After a one hour pause in the fighting, while the armies prepared for one final assault, massed Confederate artillery knocked out Federal artillery commanded by Captain James B. Ricketts, who would be shot four times and then captured.  While the Union guns were disabled, a fierce infantry fight took place around them.  During the final infantry push, Beauregard’s troops were joined by troops under Jubal Early, Arnold Elzey and J.E.B. Stuart, tipping the balance in favor of the Confederates.  They pushed the Union troops from the field, past wealthy Washington D.C. citizens and politicians who had come out to see the “show.”  With the roads leading east clogged, the retreat turned ugly with many buggies and wagons overturned as the troops tried to get to the safety of the Washington D.C. defenses.

Additional Resources:

Mike’s Photographic Essay on First Manassas
Mike’s article on Second Manassas

Campaign: First Manassas

Outcome: Confederate Victory

Troop Strengths
Union: 35,000
Confederate: 33,000

Casualties (estimated):
Union: 2,896 (killed, wounded or missing/captured)
Confederate: 1,982 (killed, wounded or missing/captured)

Battle Aftermath:
While the losses were not large, compared to later battles, citizens of the North and South were ill prepared for the long casualty lists.  The country was baptized in fire and realized this war would not be won in one quick battle.  The north realized that the resolve of the south could overshadow their lack of manufacturing and technology.  The south became bold and believed that their armies could defeat any army thrown at them from the north.  In its aftermath, the loss at Bull Run, and subsequent retreat, made Lincoln’s administration realize that the army, soon to be called the Army of the Potomac, needed a professional commander that could bring organization to the battered soldiers.  Fresh off a win against rebel forces, in what now is West Virginia, against his future nemesis Robert E. Lee, Lincoln tapped the “young Napoleon,” George B. McClellan to lead the reformation of his army.  Writing his wife, shortly after his promotion to command the Army of the Potomac, McClellan stated, “…I seem to have become the power of the land.”  While overly confident in his abilities, McClellan did significantly improve the moral of his troops and they came to love him.  However, he will always be known as having what Lincoln called, “the slows.”

In the south, the Confederacy continued to build its army, soon to be called the Army of Northern Virginia.  Joseph Johnston, would command this army, protecting Richmond, until McClellan would be pushed into action, during the spring of 1862, in what would become the Peninsula campaign.  Johnston would be severely injured in this campaign, at Seven Pines, and Robert E. Lee would push McClellan from the “Gates of Richmond” and the peninsula in the Seven Days battles.  By then, it was known throughout the north, and the south, that the war would rage for years.

(i) Eicher, David J., The Longest Night, published by Simon & Schuster, September 2001, Pg. 79.